xxck = xin xi can kao 信 息 参 考 (xxck) reference, links;
xxck = xin xi chuang kou 信息窗口 (xxck) information channel or status window;
xxck = xue xi can kao 学习参考 (xxck) study reference, links;
xxck = xuan xing can kao 选型参考 (xxck) reference design ;
xxck = xin xi cha kan 信息查看(xxck) information search
Information is the result of processing, gathering, manipulating and
organizing data in a way that adds to the knowledge of the receiver. In other
words, it is the context in which data is taken.
Information as a concept bears a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to
technical settings. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely
related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form,
instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and
representation.
Many people speak about the Information Age as the advent of the Knowledge Age
or knowledge society, the information society, and information technologies, and
even though informatics, information science and computer science are often in
the spotlight, the word "information" is often used without careful
consideration of the various meanings it has acquired.
Etymology
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the earliest historical meaning of
the word information in English was the act of informing, or giving form or
shape to the mind, as in education, instruction, or training. A quote from 1387:
"Five books come down from heaven for information of mankind." It was also used
for an item of training, e.g. a particular instruction. "Melibee had heard the
great skills and reasons of Dame Prudence, and her wise information and
techniques." (1386)
The English word was apparently derived by adding the common "noun of action"
ending "-ation" (descended through French from Latin "-tio") to the earlier verb
to inform, in the sense of to give form to the mind, to discipline, instruct,
teach: "Men so wise should go and inform their kings." (1330) Inform itself
comes (via French) from the Latin verb informare, to give form to, to form an
idea of. Furthermore, Latin itself already even contained the word informatio
meaning concept or idea, but the extent to which this may have influenced the
development of the word information in English is unclear.
As a final note, the ancient Greek word for form was eidos, and this word was
famously used in a technical philosophical sense by Plato (and later Aristotle)
to denote the ideal identity or essence of something (see Theory of forms). "Eidos"
can also be associated with thought, proposition or even concept.
Information as a message
Information is the state of a system of interest. Message is the information
materialized.
Information is a quality of a message from a sender to one or more receivers.
Information is always about something (size of a parameter, occurrence of an
event, etc). Viewed in this manner, information does not have to be accurate. It
may be a truth or a lie, or just the sound of a kiss. Even a disruptive noise
used to inhibit the flow of communication and create misunderstanding would in
this view be a form of information. However, generally speaking, if the amount
of information in the received message increases, the message is more accurate.
This model assumes there is a definite sender and at least one receiver. Many
refinements of the model assume the existence of a common language understood by
the sender and at least one of the receivers. An important variation identifies
information as that which would be communicated by a message if it were sent
from a sender to a receiver capable of understanding the message. However, in
requiring the existence of a definite sender, the "information as a message"
model does not attach any significance to the idea that information is something
that can be extracted from an environment, e.g., through observation, reading or
measurement.
Information is a term with many meanings depending on context, but is as a rule
closely related to such concepts as meaning, knowledge, instruction,
communication, representation, and mental stimulus. Simply stated, information
is a message received and understood. In terms of data, it can be defined as a
collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn. There are many other
aspects of information since it is the knowledge acquired through study or
experience or instruction. But overall, information is the result of processing,
manipulating and organizing data in a way that adds to the knowledge of the
person receiving it.
Communication theory is a numerical measure of the uncertainty of an outcome.
For example, we can say that "the signal contained thousands of bits of
information". Communication theory tends to use the concept of information
entropy, generally attributed to C.E. Shannon (see below).
Another form of information is Fisher information, a concept of R.A. Fisher.
This is used in application of statistics to estimation theory and to science in
general. Fisher information is thought of as the amount of information that a
message carries about an unobservable parameter. It can be computed from
knowledge of the likelihood function defining the system. For example, with a
normal likelihood function, the Fisher information is the reciprocal of the
variance of the law. In the absence of knowledge of the likelihood law, the
Fisher information may be computed from normally distributed score data as the
reciprocal of their second moment.
Even though information and data are often used interchangeably, they are
actually very different. Data is a set of unrelated information, and as such is
of no use until it is properly evaluated. Upon evaluation, once there is some
significant relation between data, and they show some relevance, then they are
converted into information. Now this same data can be used for different
purposes. Thus, till the data convey some information, they are not useful.
Measuring information entropy
The view of information as a message came into prominence with the publication
in 1948 of an influential paper by Claude Shannon, "A Mathematical Theory of
Communication." This paper provides the foundations of information theory and
endows the word information not only with a technical meaning but also a
measure. If the sending device is equally likely to send any one of a set of
messages, then the preferred measure of "the information produced when one
message is chosen from the set" is the base two logarithm of (This measure is
called self-information). In this paper, Shannon continues:
A complementary way of measuring information is provided by algorithmic
information theory. In brief, this measures the information content of a list of
symbols based on how predictable they are, or more specifically how easy it is
to compute the list through a program: the information content of a sequence is
the number of bits of the shortest program that computes it. The sequence below
would have a very low algorithmic information measurement since it is a very
predictable pattern, and as the pattern continues the measurement would not
change. Shannon information would give the same information measurement for each
symbol, since they are statistically random, and each new symbol would increase
the measurement.
123456789101112131415161718192021
It is important to recognize the limitations of traditional information theory
and algorithmic information theory from the perspective of human meaning. For
example, when referring to the meaning content of a message Shannon noted
“Frequently the messages have meaning… these semantic aspects of communication
are irrelevant to the engineering problem. The significant aspect is that the
actual message is one selected from a set of possible messages” (emphasis in
original).
In information theory signals are part of a process, not a substance; they do
something, they do not contain any specific meaning. Combining algorithmic
information theory and information theory we can conclude that the most random
signal contains the most information as it can be interpreted in any way and
cannot be compressed.
Micheal Reddy noted that "'signals' of the mathematical theory are 'patterns
that can be exchanged'. There is no message contained in the signal, the signals
convey the ability to select from a set of possible messages." In information
theory "the system must be designed to operate for each possible selection, not
just the one which will actually be chosen since this is unknown at the time of
design".
Information as a pattern
Information is any represented pattern. This view assumes neither accuracy nor
directly communicating parties, but instead assumes a separation between an
object and its representation. Consider the following example: economic
statistics represent an economy, however inaccurately. What are commonly
referred to as data in computing, statistics, and other fields, are forms of
information in this sense. The electro-magnetic patterns in a computer network
and connected devices are related to something other than the pattern itself,
such as text characters to be displayed and keyboard input. Signals, signs, and
symbols are also in this category. On the other hand, according to semiotics,
data is symbols with certain syntax and information is data with a certain
semantic. Painting and drawing contain information to the extent that they
represent something such as an assortment of objects on a table, a profile, or a
landscape. In other words, when a pattern of something is transposed to a
pattern of something else, the latter is information. This would be the case
whether or not there was anyone to perceive it.
But if information can be defined merely as a pattern, does that mean that
neither utility nor meaning are necessary components of information? Arguably a
distinction must be made between raw unprocessed data and information which
possesses utility, value or some quantum of meaning. On this view, information
may indeed be characterized as a pattern; but this is a necessary condition, not
a sufficient one.
An individual entry in a telephone book, which follows a specific pattern formed
by name, address and telephone number, does not become "informative" in some
sense unless and until it possesses some degree of utility, value or meaning.
For example, someone might look up a girlfriend's number, might order a take
away etc. The vast majority of numbers will never be construed as "information"
in any meaningful sense. The gap between data and information is only closed by
a behavioral bridge whereby some value, utility or meaning is added to transform
mere data or pattern into information.
When one constructs a representation of an object, one can selectively extract
from the object (sampling) or use a system of signs to replace (encoding), or
both. The sampling and encoding result in representation. An example of the
former is a "sample" of a product; an example of the latter is "verbal
description" of a product. Both contain information of the product, however
inaccurate. When one interprets representation, one can predict a broader
pattern from a limited number of observations (inference) or understand the
relation between patterns of two different things (decoding). One example of the
former is to sip a soup to know if it is spoiled; an example of the latter is
examining footprints to determine the animal and its condition. In both cases,
information sources are not constructed or presented by some "sender" of
information. Regardless, information is dependent upon, but usually unrelated to
and separate from, the medium or media used to express it. In other words, the
position of a theoretical series of bits, or even the output once interpreted by
a computer or similar device, is unimportant, except when someone or something
is present to interpret the information. Therefore, a quantity of information is
totally distinct from its medium.
Information as sensory input
Often information is viewed as a type of input to an organism or designed
device. Inputs are of two kinds. Some inputs are important to the function of
the organism (for example, food) or device (energy) by themselves. In his book
Sensory Ecology, Dusenbery called these causal inputs. Other inputs
(information) are important only because they are associated with causal inputs
and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time (and
perhaps another place). Some information is important because of association
with other information but eventually there must be a connection to a causal
input. In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be
detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before
they can be functional to the organism or device. For example, light is often a
causal input to plants but provides information to animals. The colored light
reflected from a flower is too weak to do much photosynthetic work but the
visual system of the bee detects it and the bee's nervous system uses the
information to guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often finds nectar or
pollen, which are causal inputs, serving a nutritional function.
Information is any type of sensory input. When an organism with a nervous system
receives an input, it transforms the input into an electrical signal. This is
regarded information by some. The idea of representation is still relevant, but
in a slightly different manner. That is, while abstract painting does not
represent anything concretely, when the viewer sees the painting, it is
nevertheless transformed into electrical signals that create a representation of
the painting. Defined this way, information does not have to be related to
truth, communication, or representation of an object. Entertainment in general
is not intended to be informative. Music, the performing arts, amusement parks,
works of fiction and so on are thus forms of information in this sense, but they
are not necessarily forms of information according to some definitions given
above. Consider another example: food supplies both nutrition and taste for
those who eat it. If information is equated to sensory input, then nutrition is
not information but taste is.
Information as an influence which leads to a transformation
Information is any type of pattern that influences the formation or
transformation of other patterns. In this sense, there is no need for a
conscious mind to perceive, much less appreciate, the pattern. Consider, for
example, DNA. The sequence of nucleotides is a pattern that influences the
formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind.
Systems theory at times seems to refer to information in this sense, assuming
information does not necessarily involve any conscious mind, and patterns
circulating (due to feedback) in the system can be called information. In other
words, it can be said that information in this sense is something potentially
perceived as representation, though not created or presented for that purpose.
When Marshall McLuhan speaks of media and their effects on human cultures, he
refers to the structure of artifacts that in turn shape our behaviors and
mindsets. Also, pheromones are often said to be "information" in this sense.
In 2003, J. D. Bekenstein claimed there is a growing trend in physics to define
the physical world as being made of information itself (and thus information is
defined in this way). Information has a well defined meaning in physics.
Examples of this include the phenomenon of quantum entanglement where particles
can interact without reference to their separation or the speed of light.
Information itself cannot travel faster than light even if the information is
transmitted indirectly. This could lead to the fact that all attempts at
physically observing a particle with an "entangled" relationship to another are
slowed down, even though the particles are not connected in any other way other
than by the information they carry.
Another link is demonstrated by the Maxwell's demon thought experiment. In this
experiment, a direct relationship between information and another physical
property, entropy, is demonstrated. A consequence is that it is impossible to
destroy information without increasing the entropy of a system; in practical
terms this often means generating heat. Thus, in the study of logic gates, the
theoretical lower bound of thermal energy released by an AND gate is higher than
for the NOT gate (because information is destroyed in an AND gate and simply
converted in a NOT gate). Physical information is of particular importance in
the theory of quantum computers.
Information as records
Records are a specialized form of information. Essentially, records are
information produced consciously or as by-products of business activities or
transactions and retained because of their value. Primarily their value is as
evidence of the activities of the organization but they may also be retained for
their informational value. Sound records management ensures that the integrity
of records is preserved for as long as they are required.
The international standard on records management, ISO 15489, defines records as
"information created, received, and maintained as evidence and information by an
organization or person, in pursuance of legal obligations or in the transaction
of business". The International Committee on Archives (ICA) Committee on
electronic records defined a record as, "a specific piece of recorded
information generated, collected or received in the initiation, conduct or
completion of an activity and that comprises sufficient content, context and
structure to provide proof or evidence of that activity".
Records may be retained because of their business value, as part of the
corporate memory of the organization or to meet legal, fiscal or accountability
requirements imposed on the organization. Willis (2005) expressed the view that
sound management of business records and information delivered "…six key
requirements for good corporate governance…transparency; accountability; due
process; compliance; meeting statutory and common law requirements; and security
of personal and corporate information."
Are you interested in
mult-player online internet games? Such as runescape and neopets?Internet
Game Online-games, tips, cheats and kids forumsAnother good forum is
the Internet Junction For Gamers IJFG.COM Internet
Junction For Gamers, Runescape Market and More IJFG.COM Jokes, Pranks,
Runescape and other cool games at IJFG.COM. RuneScape is set in a medieval
fantasy world, similar to "Guild Wars" or "EverQuest", where players control
character representations of themselves. As with most massive multiplayer online
roleplaying games (MMORPG), there is no overall objective or end to the game.
Players explore, form alliances, perform optional tasks, and complete quests for
rewards and to build character's skills.
RuneScape has often been one of
the top massive online role playing games. It is a unique game. But, with a
unique game, comes unique players. Players get bored, and then try to develop
cheats....autos or bots that will help them achieve success in their beloved
games of Runescape 2.
RuneScape is a virtual world which
is divided into two part: Members Areas and Non-Members areas. People who pay to
play (p2p), receive access to the special areas. They also have access to the
free areas. The members' places are much larger, offer "better" items for the
gameplay of rs2, and much, much more. The character that you create when you
first start playing runescape, moves around the game on foot; either by running,
or walking. Players are challenged to their utmost skills by fighting new
monsters, completing difficult quests, and manipulating marketing. As Runescape
2 is an RPG (Role playing game), there is no set path a person must take to play
rs. They can choose what to do, and when, whether it be training their
money-making skills, or fighting another player. Players usually interact with
each other by chatting through public chat, or private chat.Internet
Junction For Gamers, Runescape Market and More IJFG.COM IJFG.com was a
runescape 2 based site. They have now, however, taken another look....
Of course the king of all game
cheating websites is
trick
the trik (otherwise known as RPG Cheats Site), where you can find cheat
forums, mmorpg topsite, arcade games and any mmo game related topics.
The master of massive multiplayer
online role-playing games (MMORPG) cheats can be found at Trik.com
Trik.com; this site is one of the best today. The forum section,
Trik.com forum, originally came from IJFG.com (Internet Junction For
Gamers) , which was one of the best websites that discussed various gamers'
issues. The full name was Internet Junction For Gamers, Runescape Market and
More. This site had Jokes, Pranks, RuneScape and other cool games. RuneScape is
set in a medieval fantasy world, similar to "Guild Wars" or "EverQuest," where
players control character representations of themselves. As with most MMORPG,
there is no overall objective or end to the game. Players explore, form
alliances, perform optional tasks, and complete quests for rewards and to build
characters' skills.
Trik.com continues IJFG.com's
success, but Trik.com has more to offer. Trik Topsite can be found at
Trik Topsite; the TopSite is a great addition if you want to find the best
MMO RPG site(s) or raise your site in the rankings. Trik.com also has a
viciously competitive Arcade. If you want to be the #1 Arcade on Trik, then come
prove yourself at Trik.com arcade:
Trik arcade. Trik.com ?Trik.com/topsite ?Trik.com/forum/arcade.php
With the rising popularity of
commercial MMORPG games came the desire from ardent players of these games to
run their own servers beside the ones run by the game's creator. Since the
original server software is not usually available, the behavior of the server
has to be re-engineered. This can be done by analyzing the data stream with the
original server, or by disassembling and analyzing the client which is
available.
Ultima Online was one of the first
large MMORPGs. Due to its openness in implementation, server emulators arose
very quickly, even during the beta stage of development. The destination to
which the client connects was changeable by simply editing a text file. In beta
stage the client-server data stream was not encrypted yet. The term server
emulator became known through Ultima Online server reimplementation such as UOX,
which was the pioneer. Many forks and reimplementations followed UOX, because
its source code was released under the GNU General Public License relatively
early. RunUO is today the most widely used UO-server emulator. After RuneScape
implemented anti-cheating measures, many gamers left and started their own
private servers. The best place to discuss the private server is at
Trik- The Master of Private Server.
Another useful site is
Rune
Web ruwb.com . This site is about more serious RuneScape gold trading,
account exchange, gold for real life cash and many services. It includes tips on
how to avoid getting lured/scammed while using the marketplace. For programming,
visual basics, java, C/C++, scar and all other languages such as PHP, HTML, ASP,
Delphi. There are also sections for graphics talents, plus many cool videos and
fun stuff.
A defining moment in internet
gaming history was when a group of gamers called (hygo 7) decided to start an
ultimate game forum, which they named
hygo.com. It has the best financial backing, the friendliest game community,
and the highest quality of information. Currently Hygo.com has entered a new
phase...Hygo.com is offering the best private server game. With thousands of
members, Hygo.com is your next place to visit, as they have an amazing game with
a community and economy.
Hygo.com - The Online Adventure Game. is definitely one of the top sites you
want to join right now!
Ezud.com is now the powerhouse of
Runescape bugs and glitches. All and any rs2 bugs that anyone could ever
want are now found at the
Ezud forum. From a range of infinite running in runescape, to rs item
duping, ezud truly is an amazing glitching site.
Ezud has an excellent administration, and a great
moderating team. When everyone strives to make ezud.com a better place….it
becomes just that: a better place. Everyone contributes, and helps
Ezud strive.
So come on down to the new type of runescape 2 cheating:
runescape bugging. This is Ezud…this is
RuneScape 2 Bug Abuse.
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